The PLA Landing Template

The People’s Liberation Army 4 Stage Maritime Conveyor Belt (海上輸送帶)

Image Above: Two Type 05 / ZBD-05 amphibious armored vehicles swim to shore during a PLA training exercise. The vehicle in the foreground is folding up its extendable bow as it transitions from high-speed water movement to land operations. The vehicle in the background still has the extendable bow extended as it swims ashore.

Taiwan military officers created the below PLA amphibious landing templates based on exercise observations, PRC media analysis, estimates by Japanese military officers, and doctrinal knowledge. These three templates don’t agree on all points, but they offer a solid foundation to offer a tentative Vermilion assessment on an operational template PLA forces could use to plan a Joint Island Landing Campaign (JILC) against Taiwan. 

Below, we discuss three works by Taiwan military officers and conclude with the Vermilion template.

Note: there are many acronyms for different types of landing vessels/craft and amphibious armored vehicles. Please read the picture captions in this article for explanations of this equipment.

Image Above: Type 072A LST (Landing Ship Tank), the 982 Taihang Shan. These LST are able to carry about 400 tons of soldiers/vehicles or almost 1000 tons of supplies. The bow ramp (the open door at the front of the craft) is useful for landing troops and vehicles on the beach, but makes the LST slower and less seaworthy. The 072A also has a stern ramp at the rear and can also dock at a pier as pictured.

Brief Discussion on Artillery Munitions – In the Context of Anti-Landing Operations

By Lieutenant Colonel Wen Bao Ren (2021)

From LtCol Wen’s perspective, the landing process is broken into four phases (階段). 

Image Above (top picture): Diagram showing phases between landing carrier, transport ship, and landing ship. Created by LtCol Wen Bao Ren.

For LtCol Wen, the first phase is the Ferry and Carrier Ship Transfer Phase (航渡及登陸⺟艦換乘階段), which takes place 75+ km (40+ nautical miles) from the landing beach. During this phase it is likely that troops and equipment are transferred from civilian hulls: roll on roll off ferries (RoRos), deck cargo ships, and other large vessels onto “transport ships” (運輸艦), some of which are able to land directly on the beach, possibly LST, LCU, LCAC, etc. 

The transfer between larger vessels and smaller craft is accomplished through the use of a third type of vessel which effects ship-to-ship transfer (SST). These SST vessels are designed so that other ships can dock onto them.

(Image Above) The Sheng Sheng 1 (of the Wei Hai passenger transport company) a white Roll On/Roll Off ferry (RoRo - a large transport ship) offloading a ZTZ-96 main battle tank and an unidentified armored vehicle onto a green semi-submersible barge (ship-to-ship transfer vessel) and then onto a floating pier in the foreground (a ship-to-shore connector [SSC] able to hit the beach). Pending sea state, these barges can be used to transfer equipment at sea across the amphibious fleet.

The second phase is the Transport Ship Transfer Phase (運輸艦換乘階) that takes place approximately 55 km (30 nautical miles) from the landing beach. During this phase, vehicles, supplies, personnel, or equipment from gray hulls (military ships like the Type 075 LHD and Type 071 LPD) or civilian hulls (RoRo ferries with specialized ramps) are transferred onto ship-to-shore connectors like LCUs or LCACs, and then pushed forward into the next zone. 

Image Above: Deployment line of Type 271 II-D Landing Craft Utility (LCU). These specific craft are fielded by PLA Army Coastal Defense Brigades (not the Navy). Note the hull numbers: ND561, ND562.

The third phase is the Landing Ship Transfer Phase (登陸艦換乘階段), roughly 30-20 km (16-11 nautical miles) from the landing beach. At the end of this phase, LCU, LCAC, and LST can offload amphibious vehicles like the ZBD-05, ZTD-05, ZBL-08, or ZTD-11 which can swim to shore under their own power. 

Image Above: ZTD-05 (foreground) and ZBD-05 (midground) offloading from a Type 071 LPD (background). These armored vehicles are fully amphibious and can swim towards the beach under their own power. However, it is highly unlikely that ZTD/ZBD are able to cover a distance greater than 20 km over water. These two vehicles almost certainly exited the well deck of the LPD in the background, the hollow garage at the stern of the vessel. A Z-8 transport helicopter lifts off from the LPD’s flight deck.

The fourth phase is the “Boat Wave Shooting Area” (舟波射擊區), which is the remaining distance to the landing beach. ZBD/ZTD/ZBL/ZTL amphibious vehicles and beach-bound LCU, LCAC, LST, etc will traverse through this zone of maximum danger. From the Taiwan perspective, this is where Taiwan Army tactical weapons can most easily exact attrition on the invading force. 

Image Above: Schematic target grouping diagram for the anti-ship wave artillery firepower plan. Source: Taiwan Ministry of National Defense, Army Fire Support Coordination Operations Manual (Taoyuan: Army Command, Edition 101), Appendix 13-3.

Taiwan cannon artillery can begin striking targets moving over the water to the beach. As the graphic above shows, the Taiwan Army breaks this zone into different sectors. These sectors form a common basis for communication, as a single firing unit or forward observer can call out “A1” over the radio, and firing units know to focus 7000 meters out from the tideline, far to the left.

Image Above: Chinese floating pier system assembled for a 2014 exercise in Zhanjiang, China. Here, PLA soldiers have already affixed a section of the floating pier to the beach. The soldiers are extending the pier with at least one more section in the foreground.

A Brief Discussion on the Development of the Amphibious Combined Arms Brigade and the Assault Landing Tactics of the Communist Army

By Lieutenant Colonel Ge Youcheng (2020)

LtCol Ge takes a different approach from LtCol Wen by looking at the tactics of an amphibious assault in the context of a PLA amphibious combined arms brigade rather than focusing on Taiwan anti-landing operations. With that said, LtCol Ge similarly breaks the process into four distinct stages which are different from LtCol Wen.

Image Above: Phases of an amphibious assault by Qiu Yongzheng. "Research on the Application of Assault Landing Tactics of the 73rd Group Army Combined Brigade in the Eastern Theater of the Communist Army."

The first stage is the Landing Ship Boarding Area (登陸⺟艦乘戴區). Approximately 55-35 km (30-20 nautical miles) from the landing beach, troops and equipment transfer from RoRos and cargo ships through semi-submersible barges onto landing ships. 

The second stage is the Landing Ship Deployment Line (陸艦艇展開線). Approximately 30-20 km (16-11 nautical miles) from the landing beach, the landing ships move into their attack/offload lanes.

The third stage is the Amphibious Combat Vehicle Deployment Line (兩棲戰門車輛泛水出發線). Approximately 7-3 km (4-2 nautical miles) from the beach, amphibious vehicles (ZBD-05, ZTD-05, ZBL-08, ZTL-11, etc) offload from landing ships and begin moving into attack lanes. 

The fourth stage is the Lane Assault Deployment Line (街擊發起線). Approximately 5-2 km (3-1 nautical miles) from the landing beach, amphibious vehicles consolidate into assault lanes and move into final approach and assault to/through the landing beach. 

Image Above: A Type 726 LCAC (Landing Craft Air Cushion) hovercraft (background) returning to a Type 071 LPD (Landing Platform Dock), the 999 Jinggang Shan. LPDs including the 999 have a hollow garage in the stern (rear of the ship) called a welldeck which can open and flood with water to allow amphibious craft to embark or debark the LPD at sea.

Research on the Garrison Force’s Counterattack Against the Communist Army’s Three-Dimensional and Envelopment Operations (立體超越上陸作戰)

By Lieutenant Colonel Lu Bingyang (2023)

LtCol Lu takes a broader approach to an amphibious assault by building out a full joint island landing campaign (JILC) scenario and then focusing on a southern assault. 

Image Above: Schematic diagram of the Communist Army’s (PLAs) three-dimensional envelopment and landing. Made by LtCol Lu Bingyang.

For Lu, stage one is “Beyond Visual Range Transfer to Assault Lanes,” (超視距換乘編波街擊). This stage occurs 55-28 km out from the landing beach. Amphibious vehicles, troops, and equipment are transferred from large transport ships (identified here as LPD and LHD) and loaded onto small transport ships (LST, LCU, LCAC, etc) which are then able to land directly on the beach or offload amphibious vehicles into the sea during the next stage. 

Stage two is offloading of amphibious vehicles. Approximately 8 km from the landing beach, LST, LCU, and LCAC can drop their ramps to allow amphibious vehicles (ZBD-05, ZTD-05, ZBL-08, ZTL-11, etc) to roll off and swim into their assault lanes for stage three.

Stage three is the beach assault. Once amphibious vehicles hit the beach, infantry offload and maneuver against beach defense units. Beach attacks would likely be supported by helicopters (Z-19 in the image above) firing against Taiwan strong points. Simultaneously, air assault units would begin movement to landing zones behind Taiwan Army defensive lines.

Image Above: Type 08 ZBL-08 Infantry Fighting Vehicle (IFV). Fielded primarily by PLA Army medium combined arms brigades (MCABs) and PLAN Marine Corps brigades. China analysts often write off the Type 08 as an exclusively ground-based vehicle. However, the Type 08 and other variants of this platform are fully amphibious. The vehicle features a small deployable bow at the front as well as large water propellers which can be identified in this photo behind the last wheel.

Vermilion Assessment: The 4 Stage Maritime Conveyor Belt (海上輸送帶)

Taking into account the above works, Vermilion assesses the PLA will utilize a four stage “maritime conveyor belt” approach to landing operations. Each stage is a geographic zone or line consisting of sea or littoral areas where distinct types of PLA activity occur to continuously generate the forward movement of combat power (men, vehicles, equipment, supplies). 

This maritime conveyor belt must almost certainly operate 24/7 if the PLA is to have any chance of successfully pulling off a Taiwan invasion.

The Vermilion 4 Stage Maritime Conveyor Belt

Stage 1: Marshaling, Embarkation, & Transit Zone

None of the authors discuss the initial process of moving PLA combat power (men, vehicles, equipment, supplies) from garrison to port, from port to loaded aboard ship, and from ship in port to movement into the strait. 

Marshaling, Embarkation, & Transit is a geographic zone that begins with port areas on the PRC’s coast and reaches out to 70-55 km (37-30 nautical miles) away from the Taiwan coast. 

The purpose of Stage 1 is to marshal combat power at the correct ports while protecting both the port infrastructure and marshaling forces/installations from detection, disruption, and destruction. 

Once accomplished, marshaled forces can then begin embarking onto vessels/craft, requiring an intricate process of load planning. Large sea-going vessels are most able to load combat power and transit this zone. This includes the following vessels: LHD, LPD, SST vessels, and civilian cargo ships. 

Small sea-going craft are also capable, but face problems. The following craft are slower than large vessels, some less than half the speed: LST, LCU, and People’s Armed Forces Maritime Militia (PAFMM) boats. These platforms would face high transit times of 9-10+ hours to make a single one-way trip.

The exceptions are the two high speed craft: the Type 726 LCAC and the larger Type 728 LCAC. While these travel at speeds of up to 50mph and 60mph respectively, they do not have the carrying capacity of the large sea-going vessels.

Totally excluded in this phase are amphibious armored vehicles. they do not have long enough swimming ranges to transit Stage 1. These vehicles must be loaded onto sea-going vessels and craft in order to make it across the strait.

The centers of gravity or critical nodes of Stage 1 are PRC ports. As long as these port facilities are in operation, the PLA has the capability to continue flowing combat power across the strait.

Once loaded, vessels/craft will then steam into the strait, bound for either Stage 2, 3, or 4.

Image Above: Pomornik Type 728 Zubr-class LCAC (Landing Craft Air Cushion). This is a very large hovercraft which generates lift force with air underneath the rubber skirt at the bottom of the craft. This allows LCAC to hover above underwater obstacles like mines and coral reefs as well as transition directly onto land from the sea. This is LCAC 3325, produced in Ukraine and delivered to the PRC around 2013. The PRC now builds these LCAC indigenously. The Zubr-class is among the fastest landing craft in the world, capable of sustained speeds at 102 kph/63 mph. The Type 728 is incapable of docking with larger platforms, but can likely interface with SST vessels.

Stage 2: Amphibious Transhipment Line

All three authors assume a process of Amphibious Transhipment that occurs about 70-55 km (40-30 nautical miles) from the landing beach. The purpose of transhipment is to utilize large transport vessels with their higher speeds and greater capacity to efficiently carry PLA combat power to seabases positioned along the transhipment line.

At the seabases, this large volume of rapidly delivered combat power is then dispersed into smaller and slower transport vessels bound for Stage 3 or 4.

Large transport vessels of both gray hull (LHD, LPD) and civilian type (RoRo, cargo ships) are capable of carrying greater tonnage at greater speeds than any other types of ships in the PLA inventory. Their utilization to cross the greatest distance (Stage 1 up to the Stage 2 transhipment line) greatly speeds up the movement of combat power across the strait.

To accomplish the at sea transfer of combat power from large vessels into smaller craft, the PLA must employ ship-to-ship transfer (SST) vessels.

These SST vessels are the centers of gravity or critical nodes of the Stage 2 transhipment line. SST vessels are mainly composed of semi-submersible vessels (including barges and platforms) and floating piers (which the PLA have trained with for over a decade).

The semi-submersible vessels are equipped with adjustable ballast systems to ensure high stability even in high sea states. They can also raise or lower their draft in the water, raising or lowering the deck height at will. This allows all types of transports (military, civilian, large vessels, small craft, etc) to dock and exchange cargo.

Once aboard the SST vessels, PLA combat power is then reloaded onto small transport craft (gray hulls like LST, LCU, and LCAC or civilian boats like People’s Armed Forces Maritime Militia [PAFMM] and requisitioned civilian craft). 

Floating piers offer the opportunity to considerably expand the semi-submersible vessel’s (SSV’s) docking areas. This allows for higher utilization of every SSV and the creation of a more robust seabase. It also adds a margin of error. Overflow combat power can be offloaded onto floating piers temporarily and detached until ready for transhipment.

The floating piers are also able to swim to shore under their own power and affix to the beach, eventually allowing for large vessels to skip Stage 2 and 3, heading directly to the beach (Stage 4) to unload the heaviest combat vehicles and supplies.

It is highly likely that if PLA leaders are able to protect the seabases, they will move them forward, pushing the Stage 2 amphibious transhipment line closer to Taiwan. This would speed up the movement of combat power ashore, since faster large transport vessels would cover even more of the strait before transhipping into the slower small transport craft.

Destruction of semi-submersibles and floating piers (seabases) would force the PLA to commit their large transport vessels (both gray hull and civilian: LHD, LPD, RoRo, cargo ships) closer to shore, either up to the beginning of Stage 4 (amphibious vehicle debark area for LHD, LPD and RoRos with w/specialized ramps) or limited only to the end of Zone 4 at an established pier (all other large transport vessels).

Zone 4 is generally within visual range, which places PLA assets in extreme danger.

Image Above: Yuyi Type 726 LCAC (Landing Craft Air Cushion). This LCAC is carrying a ZTD-05 amphibious assault gun. The LCAC can either drop ramp at sea and have the ZTD-05 swim off or land directly on the beach to drop ramp. The Type 726 is small enough for four to fit inside the welldeck of a Type 071 LPD or two to fit inside a Type 075 LHD.

Stage 3: Amphibious Transit Zone

All three templates also identify an area of Amphibious Transit where PLA combat power moves via small landing craft (LST, LCU, LCAC, etc) either to a drop off area for amphibious vehicles or directly to the beach. There is some variability, but this process proceeds from the Stage 2 transhipment line (70-55 km) to the amphibious assault vehicle debark line around 20-8 km (11-4 nm) from the beach.

In this area between the transhipment operation and the amphibious vehicle debark line, a large number of platforms would be moving back and forth. These transports would be moving at very different speeds. For example, Type 726 LCAC at about 40 knots (73 mph/45 mph), LST at 20 knots (37 kph/22 mph), and LCU at 11 knots (19 kph/11 mph).

High value targets in Zone 3 include the PLA’s fast movers. These are the small landing craft that travel at the greatest speed. Specifically, these are the two types of Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCAC), the Pomornik Type 728 Zubr-class LCAC and the Yuyi Type 726 LCAC. These craft are able to transport about 200 tons and 60 tons respectively.

Image Above: Type 075 LHD (Landing Helicopter Dock). This vessel combines a flight deck on the top for helicopters, internal aviation hangars, an internal vehicle garage, and a welldeck in the rear of the vessel for launching/recovering amphibious assault vehicles. These are the largest and most capable amphibious vessels, and often serve as amphibious headquarters afloat. A Type 075 can hold two Type 726 and/or multiple LCU.

Stage 4: Amphibious Assault Debark Line and Assault Lanes

All three writers also discuss an Amphibious Assault Lane process. The beginning of the Amphibious Assault Debark Line & Assault Lanes lies about 20-8km (11-4 nautical miles) from the landing beach. Smaller landing craft such as LST, LCU, and LCAC reach the amphibious vehicle debark line and offload amphibious vehicles into the sea, allowing them to begin swimming to shore. These small landing craft also have the option of moving into attack lanes themselves to land on the beach, depending on the threat environment.

Type 05 amphibious vehicles can likely be dropped off 20-15 km (10-8 nm) away from the beach and travel at a speed of about 16 knots (30 kph/18mph) in the water. Type 08 amphibious vehicles can likely be dropped off 10-8 km (5-4 nm) away from the beach and likely travel at a speed of about 8 knots (15kph/9mph) in the water.

PLA forces in Stage 4 are primarily concerned with two principles. 

First is force protection. The PLA must prevent heavy attrition on the small transport craft either dropping amphibious vehicles at the debark line or heading to the beach themselves. Heavy attrition must also be prevented against the amphibious vehicles until they can land and begin fighting.

The PLA is preparing the employment of a number of techniques to protect the amphibious assault lanes. This would include proofing the lanes by clearing obstacles, use of infrared reflective smoke in order to hide PLA platforms, electronic warfare to jam and recon Taiwan units on the landing beach, electronic protection to ensure PLA communications, studying the proper dispersal of vehicles during landing, and providing fire support to the landing force.

Second, the PLA must ensure that soldiers in the assault lanes are able to navigate to the correct beaches as well as to the correct areas on the beach, echelon after echelon and wave after wave. Use of radios, beacons, visual signals, and other signs must make up a competent PACE (Primary, Alternate, Contingency, Emergency) plan for communications.

After Stage 4, PLA troops are dropped off the Maritime Conveyor Belt onto the beach to begin the fight. 

Conclusion

These assessments illustrate that an amphibious assault is significantly more complex than loading troops onto ships at Port A and then dropping them off a few kilometers off the shore at Beach B. Stay tuned for the next article where we discuss how to destroy key nodes in the Maritime Conveyor Belt.